The history of photography in the twentieth century is a story of finding solutions for optimizing optical problems. The main challenges have involved improving lens configurations to optimize image quality for film capture. As an example of this, lens aberrations have been reliably corrected by creating aspherical lens elements in wide-angle lenses and by creating apochromatic lens elements in telephoto lenses. The use of lens element coatings has also improved optical quality. Similarly, the evolution of zoom lenses has included improvement in optical quality via the combining of complex optical element configurations; as the optical quality of zoom lenses improved dramatically, their simplicity and utility led them to dominate lens sales. Complex computer-aided design (CAD) software has been used to test a broad range of possible lens configurations so as to optimize the optical performance in terms of clarity and contrast of each lens type, as much as optically possible within economic constraints.
In the last twenty-five years, an additional revolution has occurred with the advent of auto-focus (AF) technology in still photographic and video cameras. Invented by Minolta in the early 1980s, AF technology was a photographic application of technology developed for the U.S. military. The AF system used an infrared light sensor to reflect light onto an object that allowed a camera's lens to focus on the object by employing a motor in the camera. Canon eventually developed improved methods of auto focus by using electronic means (viz., micro ultrasonic motors) to increase speed and accuracy. This AF technology was integrated with automatic exposure (AE) technology which developed complex algorithms in a “program” mode to combine shutter and aperture data to match each lens with particular subject matter, as well as an aperture-priority exposure mode and a shutter-priority exposure mode. Of course, the photographer could use manual focus and manual exposure at any time, but these improvements increased the creative process and the competitive advantages of camera makers and photographers that employed them. Ultimately, the combination of these developments allowed ordinary photographers to achieve high quality standards.
AE was improved by Nikon, particularly with the use of a “3D color matrix” system, which included a library of pre-programmed image types. The combination of the improved AF and AE subsystems allowed a dramatic simplification of photographic imaging because the photographer no longer labored over the time-consuming focus and the exposure variables. Automated film advance, in the form of built in motor drives, increased the working speeds of camera operation as well. Nearly all consumer and professional cameras became automated to some degree by the mid-1990s, including formats beyond the 35 mm film standard.
In the last decade, a new technology of image stabilization (IS) has emerged to help correct the problem of vibrations caused camera shake that lead to image blur. This technology is implemented in lenses by the use of gyros to reorient the light plane to compensate for camera shake; when combined with the earlier automated camera technologies such as AF and AE, IS further improves the photographic experience, particularly for larger lenses.
In addition to these advances in camera automation, technologies improved in the category of artificial flash as well. With microprocessors and sensors employed to measure minute variances, the development of photographic flash systems allowed the photographer to control the lighting in an environment to some degree. Nikon's use of distance information in its flash system advanced the state of the art in flash photography. The combination of AF and AE with automated flash mechanisms provided increased efficiency and simplicity in image capture processes.
The last several years have witnessed a revolution in digital photography. Because of its simplicity, potential quality improvement, immediate feedback and cost savings, digital photography has captured an increasing market share relative to film-based cameras. Kodak holds a number of patents involving the charge coupled device (CCD) for converting and recording light into electronic format. A competing technology for digital capture is complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) which, though developed by Fairchild Semiconductor over forty years ago, is predominantly used in photographic cameras by Canon. Although there are trade-offs in the application of CCD and CMOS digital sensors for image capture, they both find wide acceptance in the market.
In order to correct for digital artifacts in image capture mechanisms, anti-aliasing filters are placed in front of digital sensors. Despite this improvement, digital imaging still has some challenges to overcome in competing with the image quality of film.
At the present time, the most recent advances in digital imaging for professional still photography have come from Hasselblad, which offers a Phase One camera back with a 39 MP digital sensor from Kodak. This system uses software that automatically corrects for digital capture limitations to produce a quality image. Their “digital APO correction” (DAC) technology performs an analysis of meta-data to color-correct the digital capture resulting in moiré-free images.
At the limits of current technology, a Canadian company, Dalsa, has produced a 111MP (10,560 by 10,560 pixels) CCD digital sensor that measures four inches square. This technology must be mated with large format-type lenses with large image area, and may be used for satellite surveillance applications and for other astronomical applications.
With both the larger sensor surface area of a medium format camera system and the high-quality fixed focal-length lenses of Zeiss, Schneider and Rodenstock, the quality of even the top optics will be a limiting barrier to advanced digital sensors' ability to perceive maximum resolution. Without new improvements in optical and digital technologies, further progression of photographic camera systems will be limited.
Photographic Problems
Though every major advance in photography has solved an important problem, there are still remaining photographic problems to be solved in order to meet the goals of optimizing optical imaging quality while increasing simplicity and efficiency and lowering cost. Despite the advent and evolution of digital imaging, a number of problems have emerged in the digital realm in addition to earlier problems involving optics. Nevertheless, an opportunity exists to solve some of these problems via digital approaches. These problems are generally categorized as optical or digital.
Optical Problems
In the case of optics, lens aberrations are characterized according to lens type, with wide-angle lens problems differentiated from telephoto lens problems. Some of the problems affecting wide-angle lenses arose from the creation of the single lens reflex (SLR) camera. Before the SLR, the rear element of a lens could be placed in a rangefinder to protrude to a point immediately in front of the film plane in order to correct for aberrations. While the advantages of the mirror mechanism include ability to see exactly what one is photographing, because the mirror of the SLR flips up during exposure, the rear element of the lens must be placed in front of the mirror's plane of movement. This mechanical fact limits lens designs in most 35 mm and medium-format camera systems and particularly affects wide-angle lens configurations.
It is very difficult to control the five aberrations of Seidel—spherical aberration, distortion (barrel distortion and pin cushion distortion), comatic aberration, astigmatism and curvature of field. In wide-angle SLR lenses as they are currently designed, these aberrations are particularly prominent.
For wide-angle lenses, optical vignetting affects peripheral illumination. Though optical vignetting will affect even retrofocus wide-angle lenses in rangefinders, it is particularly prominent in SLR cameras. According to the Cosine law, light fall-off in peripheral areas of an image increases as the angle-of-view increases. While optical vignetting can be reduced by stopping down the lens, the aberrations in rectilinear wide-angle lenses generally exhibit more distortion the wider the lens.
In the case of wide-angle lenses, the depth of field range is much broader, with close focusing causing aberrations without stopping down the aperture. To solve this problem, close-distance focusing is improved by the creation of floating groups of lens elements. The rear lens group elements float to correct close-distance aberrations. With wide-angle lenses that have wide apertures, floating lens elements improve lens aberrations in focusing on distance points also.
Modulation transfer function (MTF) curves represent a quantitative methodology used to assess the resolution and contrast of lens performance at specific apertures. Each lens type has a specific lens element composition, formula and behavior as measured by MTF. In general, MTF measures lens sharpness to 30 lines/mm and contrast to 10 lines/mm.
Because different colors of the visible light spectrum behave uniquely, the goal of lens design is to have all colors accurately hit a film plane or digital sensor plane. The particular challenge for telephoto lenses is that the red and green light colors strike the film plane at different times than blue light colors; thus a compensation must be made in the lens configuration to adjust for chromatic aberrations. Camera lens manufacturers have used extra low dispersion glass and fluorite glass elements in telephoto lenses primarily to adjust the red color light spectra to the film plane. In addition, telephoto lenses use carefully designed lens coatings to limit light diffraction-based aberrations.
Due to their construction, super-telephoto lenses are very large and heavy. While modifying the materials used in the lens barrels could reduce size and weight problems, a technological improvement in telephoto lens design was developed by Canon with the addition of diffractive optical (DO) elements, which behave as a sort of highly-refined fresnel lens magnifier. Though the MTF analyses of wide-angle lenses show dramatic latitude in performance of even high quality SLR lenses, with particular loss in resolution and contrast toward the edges of the image, high quality telephoto lenses show control of aberrations. However, the price of these lenses is prohibitively high.
In the case of zoom lenses, as many as four distinct groups of lens elements correct various optical aberrations. These lens element groups include (a) a focusing group, (b) a magnification variation group, (c) a correction group and (d) an image formation group. Modulating the focal length range of a zoom lens enables the lens to perform within the scope of operation, yet the zoom lens architecture has limits. In particular, the zoom lens configuration sacrifices resolution and wide potential aperture. Generally, the degree of resolution and contrast at the smaller angle of view is traded away in favor of competence at a wider angle of view, or vice-versa. This explains why MTF analyses of zoom lenses generally show a dramatic lowering in resolution and contrast relative to excellent fixed focal length lenses.
Digital Problems
Digital photography has built on the edifice of film camera systems. For instance, the size of the sensor is generally limited to the size of the optical circumference of a lens system. In the case of 35 mm lenses that are designed for a specific angle of view, the largest that a digital sensor in a 35 mm lens system could be, is 24 mm by 36 mm, with a corresponding maximum image circle of 43 mm. In the case of medium format lenses, the largest digital sensors would duplicate the corresponding film plane size, whether 6×4.5 cm, 6×6 cm, 6×7 cm, 6×8 cm, 6×9 cm, 6×12 cm or 6×17 cm (which results in an effective image circle as large as 7 inches).
Digital sensors that are smaller than the limits of a corresponding lens system have been introduced. For example, Nikon digital sensors are smaller than 24 mm×36 mm, or advanced photo system (APS) size. Efficient stacking of pixels allows a smaller sensor to eventually match the performance of a corresponding film system, while using the smaller circumference of the same lenses. Since the outside edges of the lens typically degrade resolution and contrast, this model using the smaller digital sensor can have an advantage of using primarily the centralized “sweet spot” of the image area. However, this smaller sensor size sacrifices the peripheral effects of a wide-angle lens, so a 14 mm becomes a 21 mm in a 1.5× conversion-sized sensor in a 35 mm lens system. On the other hand, with telephoto lenses, the angle of view is limited to the center 65% of the image. This gives the appearance of upconverting a telephoto lens by 1.5× and thus provides an impression of increased magnification; a 400 mm f/2.8 lens appears as a 600 mm f/2.8 lens on a camera with a cropped digital sensor. Ultra-wide-angle lenses have been introduced with smaller image areas than 35 mm to compensate for smaller sensor size.
Though invented over thirty years ago by Dr. Bayer, the charge coupled device (CCD) that is used in many digital cameras generally emulates the behavior of film. Specifically, since most photographic film has three layers of green, red and blue, with green representing fifty percent of the emulsion and red and blue twenty-five percent each, the CCD architecture also configured pixels to capture fifty percent of the green photonic visible light spectrum and twenty-five percent each for pixels recording red and blue light. Human eyes see more green than red and blue, so both film and digital sensors seek to emulate the way that we see. Each light color is captured by a different pixel in the CCD, just as there are three emulsion layers of film. In recent years, Foveon has developed a digital sensor for image capture that further seeks to emulate film by structuring the pixels into three layers, again with fifty percent capturing green light and twenty-five percent each capturing red and blue light.
Unfortunately, unwanted artifacts are also captured by the digital image capture process. These include banding and moiré effects that present false patterns and colors. Moiré patterns are created because the dot pattern of a sensor will intermittently overlap with the pattern of a subject to create a third pattern; these effects are optically-generated digital distortions that represent the effect of light hitting a pixel without correction. In order to compensate for these effects, digital sensors have employed low pass filters consisting of liquid crystal structures; however, these filters tend to have the effect of softening image resolution. Additionally, RGB or CMYG color filters are placed in front of digital sensors to ensure the accurate capture of colors.
CMOS digital sensors present an alternative to CCDs. By employing alternating positive and negative transistor networks, the CMOS sensors use less power. While they do not have the low noise ratio of the CCD, they do have greater light exposure latitude, in both range of ISO and dynamic range of detail in highlight and shadow. More importantly, CMOS sensors contain the circuitry, including analog to digital converter (ADC) and digital to analog converter (DAC), for post-processing digital images on the chip itself and enabling increased micro-miniaturization of the digital imaging process. An increase in the bit rate of the CMOS chip up to 32-bit makes possible a much richer color palate and level of detail than with earlier generation CCDs.
CMOS sensors can be full-frame, matching the lens specifications for the camera systems for which they are designed. A relatively bigger sensor has a wider depth of field capability, so the background can appear as a blur to set apart the main subject. Given these capabilities, one problem that emerges is that a digital sensor's enhanced capabilities to capture details may exceed the maximum optical resolution capabilities of many lenses. Nevertheless, CMOS sensors still require an anti-aliasing filter to be used in front of the sensor, which marginally degrades resolution.
Over the years, cameras have gotten smaller. While in the 19th century cameras were 11×14 or 8×10, literally capturing images on large emulsion plates, cameras of today are smaller and more automated. Yet the larger the film size, the bigger the enlargement potential and the increase in relative detail in the overall image. Similarly in digital photography, the larger the sensor, the more detail available and the bigger the output print can be enlarged. Because of this correspondence of digital sensor to film, the evolution of digital photography has been restricted to respective film camera systems, with 35 mm and medium format systems dominating the field because well-developed lens systems have already been organized for these camera formats. The potential exists, however, to develop 35 mm camera system digital sensors that rival film-based medium format or large format camera system quality or to surpass the limits of 35 mm camera systems with medium format camera system digital sensors. The relative size, cost and automation advantages of 35 mm camera systems generally show that these systems not only are competitive, but that these markets are increasingly accelerated relative to larger format systems. For example, the development of large aperture lenses, super-telephotos, rapid auto-focus, refined automated exposure and image stabilization systems in 35 mm systems has solved various problems that have emerged in the last century and has improved image quality and camera system efficiency.
However, in the digital imaging realm additional problems have emerged, including the need to improve color (hue and saturation) quality, exposure highlight range, contrast range and other tonal adjustments. In addition, digital image capture brings its own set of aberrations, including moiré and banding effects and noise and ISO range limits. Additional aberrations are linked to the unique design of each type of digital sensor, with trade-offs presented between types of CCDs or CMOS chips. Moreover, there are still optical problems in the digital realm, namely, a range of optical aberrations created particularly by wide-angle and zoom lenses as well as the limits of very large, costly and heavy super-telephoto lenses.
In order to transcend the optical and digital limits of present camera systems, software systems have been developed that deal with the problems in post-production. While the most notable of these post-production digital editing software programs is Adobe Photoshop, each camera manufacturer has its own proprietary program. In the main, these post-production software programs are limited to color correction and sharpening/softening of images. Additionally, some of these software programs are able to emulate specific artificial filter techniques to produce creative modifications of an original image. Nevertheless, manipulating unfiltered RAW image files in post-production processes is time-consuming and expensive and requires considerable skill.
One unintended effect of using digital sensors to capture images in digital photography is that dust accumulates on the sensor surface and thereby obstructs a clear optical image. The vacuum behavior of increasingly ubiquitous zoom lenses moves dust in lenses that are not internally sealed and the existence of dust is a prevalent feature of digital photography. Dust on the sensor is a non-trivial problem that requires tedious post-production correction for each image. The existence of dust on a digital sensor is an inconvenient impediment to achievement of optical imaging quality.
What is needed to correct these various optical and digital aberrations and unfiltered image files is in-camera modification capability for each specific image problem. The present invention describes a digital imaging system to optimize optical results.
Applications of the Present Invention
The present invention has several practical applications. The digital imaging system applies to consumer and professional still and video camera technologies, to cellular telephones and to personal digital assistants (PDAs). Since video technologies are evolving into digital formats, including HDTV and its successors, the present invention would be applicable to these technologies. The present invention also applies to networks of remote camera sensors for surveillance. The system also applies to native digital cinematography and telecine conversion from analogue to digital media. The system may be applied to image scanning and image copying technologies. Finally, the present system may be applied to any optical digital capture, processing and storage sub-system technologies, including groups of sensors or satellites.
Advantages of the Present Invention
There are several important advantages of the present invention. The present system dramatically improves image quality. This digital imaging system eliminates, or minimizes, post-production processes. In addition, the system presents substantial cost savings as well as time savings relative to existing digital imaging systems because of the automation of integrated in-camera optical and digital corrections of aberrations.
With the present system, in-camera digital filters will largely replace optical filters. With less distortion, cost and weight/size than current optical filters and with far more control and quality results, the present system demonstrates that in-camera digital filtration out-performs better than external filters. The in-camera filter system is also an improvement over post-production digital filter systems which require substantial time, cost and skill to implement.
By using the present invention, users will be able to use lens apertures that are wider open, because lens aberrations will be corrected. In turn, this increased latitude will allow more efficient (2+ stops) use of available light and will allow slower lenses to achieve quality images that have traditionally been in the domain of expensive fast lenses. The process of photography will be made generally more efficient.
The present system allows camera manufacturers to design different, predominantly smaller, lenses. Moreover, with providing a system for digital corrections, camera lenses may use less expensive optics and still obtain good results. This process will, in turn, accelerate the adoption of low-cost digital photographic systems and, in the aggregate, increase the overall size of the digital photographic market. Similarly, there will be an increase in the effectiveness of zoom lenses, which are already becoming popular. With the present system, 35 mm optics may obtain the quality typically recognized by 4×5 film camera systems. The present system will thus facilitate photographic digital imaging to supplant the film era.
Its application to digital scanning and copying will allow the present system to become ubiquitous as a system to improve imaging.
Because the system presents an integration of several critical subsystems that are centered on digital imaging processes, the system has applications to video photography, satellite systems and surveillance systems. The dynamics of the operation of the subsystems of the present digital imaging system reveal the refinement, efficiency and optimization of the digital photographic paradigm.
Importantly, since the present system uses apparatus and methods that are implemented with software processes, in-camera software can be constantly upgraded and remotely downloaded, while image files can be automatically uploaded, organized and published.
If the goal of the evolution of photographic technology is to increase the number and quality of excellent images, the present system will revolutionize photography.
Solutions to Digital Imaging Problems that the Present System Presents
The present system provides in-camera digital corrections to both optical and digital aberrations. In the case of optical aberrations, distinct lens-specific imperfections are caused by wide-angle, telephoto and zoom lens types. In the case of digital aberrations, specific digital artifacts, such as aliasing and dust, must be corrected.
The present invention also designs specific improvements to digital sensor design. These hardware architecture modifications allow digital imaging to maximize both optical resolution and image exposure range.
Post-capture in-camera filtration is only part of the solution. There is also a need to modify the digital sensor, whether CCD or CMOS, with specific filtration in some cases, including a low pass anti-aliasing filter and a polarizing filter. This post-optic pre-sensor filtration works with post-sensor in-camera filtration processes.
In the context of specific complex processes, such as in zoom lens modifications of focal length and in full-motion video processing, additional corrections are performed using the digital imaging system which continuously optimizes performance.
Finally, the present system reveals approaches to improve network coordination and wireless external storage and publication capabilities for digital imaging systems.